Return to the Table of Contents
Previous Section of the Tumor Manual

11. SURVEYS, DIAGNOSIS, AND REPORTING OF FISH CANCERS

There have been only a few systematic surveys of cancer in fish. By and large, most epizootics of fish cancer have been found either by chance or by individual investigators who have looked for and found fish populations that were affected with various kinds of cancers. Based upon strong circumstantial evidence, several of these situations appear to be the result of exposure to anthropogenic pollutants. For example, high frequencies of liver and skin cancers in brown bullheads in the Black River, Ohio (Baumann et al. 1982), and in the Buffalo River, New York (Black 1983), are associated with high concentrations of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons and some metals in the sediment. In both situations these epizootics were found by a single interested scientist.

A similar scenario exists for liver cancer in English sole (Parophrys vetulus) in Puget Sound near Seattle, Washington (Myers et al. 1990). Good epidemiological data correlated with contaminant exposure and laboratory induction experiments reinforce the idea of chemical carcinogenesis in wild fish populations. The hepatocellular liver neoplasms in sauger and walleye from Torch Lake, Michigan, are associated with heavy loadings of extremely fine particulates which were produced when copper "stamp sands" were reprocessed (Black et al. 1982). Although these particulates are an obvious pollutant, their role as carcinogens is unknown. In addition to the particles, large quantities of organic chemicals were apparently used in the floatation part of the copper reprocessing. The liver cancers in these fish were discovered because of a fisheries biologist's interest in the fact that this heavily polluted lake was known to have very obese (up to the point of a state record for the species) saugers. While the liver tumors were not identified by the fisheries biologist, other abnormalities were noted (Tomljanovich 1984 in Black et al. 1982). These findings in turn prompted a second look by other scientists, ultimately leading to the discovery of the hepatic neoplasms.

It is significant that these epizootics were discovered by observant and interested biologists who took the time to look carefully at fish being examined as part of their stock assessment program. Most fishery biologists are very familiar with the normal anatomy of fish and require only minimal training to detect, sample, and report suspicious lesions. However, tumor monitoring is a time consuming job requiring a stratified sampling strategy and some specialized field gear. It is unrealistic to assume that tumor surveys can be completed incidentally to other work. Stock assessment activities in polluted areas are extremely useful for detecting potential problems. The follow up study requires at least one and probably two weeks of concentrated effort to capture sufficient fish, perform the autopsies, describe the lesions, and save the tissues. Another week at least may be required to analyze the data. Histological analysis from a diagnostic laboratory will cost approximately $20 per analysis.

The Registry of Tumors in Lower Animals, housed at the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., U.S.A., provides a diagnostic service and clearing house for information concerning cancer in lower animals. Anyone can submit specimens to the RTLA for diagnosis. The service is provided free of charge. A sample accession form is available from the RTLA. The form can be photocopied for use in submitting specimens, or a typed facsimile that provides most of the requested information will be quite satisfactory. Although submission of specimens to the Registry is on a voluntary basis, new case records can provide significant leads to follow up with more detailed surveys.

To send specimens to the Registry simply drain the fixed tissue and then wrap it in cheese cloth (or a baby diaper) soaked in the formalin fixative, place it in a leak-proof plastic bag or jar, and deliver, with the accession form, to the RTLA.

If suspected cases of fish neoplasia are detected in the US waters of the Great Lakes, notice of submission to the RTLA should be sent to:
 

Notification of sites and species of concern should be sent to the most appropriate office:
 

12. GLOSSARY

Acellular Devoid of cells or unicellular organisms that do not become multicellular.

Anomalies Deviation from the average or norm.

Atrophy The wasting of tissues.

Atypia Not typical.

Autolysis The enzymatic digestion of cells by enzymes present within them.

Avascular Without blood supply or lymphatic vessels.

Benign The non-malignant character of a neoplasm

Cancer Various types of malignant neoplasms, most of which invade surrounding tissue.

Carcinoma Any of the various types of malignant neoplasms derived from epithelial tissue.

Caseous A form of coagulation necrosis in which the necrotic tissue resembles cheese (a combination of protein and fat that is absorbed very slowly.

Cholangiocarcinoma An adenocarcinoma composed of bile ducts with abundant fibrous stroma.

Cholangioma A neoplasm of bile duct origin that may be benign or malignant.

Chromatoblastoma A tumor of an embryonic cell that has the potential to develop into a pigment cell.

Coalescing nodules The fusion of originally separate nodules.

Cytologic Relating to the study of the anatomy, physiology, pathology and chemistry of the cell.

Diagnosis The determination of the nature of a disease.

Diffuse Spread about, not restricted.

Edema The accumulation of an excessive amount of watery fluid in cells, tissues or cavities.

Epidemic The occurrence of an illness clearly in excess of normal expectations.

Epidemiology The study of the distribution and determinants of health related events in specified populations.

Epithelial A cellular avascular layer covering all free surfaces, cutaneous, mucous, and serous.

Epizootic An outbreak of a disease in an animal population that exceeds normal expectations.

Etiology The study of the causes of diseases and their mode of operation.

Exudate A fluid that is exuded out of a tissue, usually because of injury or inflammation.

Fibroma A benign neoplasm derived from fibrous connective tissue.

Fibrosarcoma A malignant neoplasm derived from deep fibrous tissue.

Focal A localized area of focus.

Friable A tissue that is dry and brittle and easily crumbled into a powder.

Goiterogenic An agent that causes goiter, a chronic enlargement of the thyroid gland.

Granuloma A nodular inflammatory lesion. Usually persistent.

Hemorrhage An escape of blood through ruptured or unruptured vessel walls.

Hepatocellular carcinoma A malignant hepatoma derived from parenchyma cells of the liver.

Hepatoma A tumor derived from parenchyma cells.

Hermaphroditic The presence of ovarian and testicular tissue in one individual.

Histopathology The study of cytologic and histologic structure of abnormal or diseased tissue.

Hyperplasia An increase in the number of cells in a tissue or organ, excluding tumor formation.

Inflammation A pathologic process in response to an injury or abnormal stimulation. Inflammation is characterized by swelling, heat, pain, and redness.

Lesion A pathological change in a tissue.

Lymphosarcoma A malignant lymphoma.

Malignant A locally invasive and destructive growth.

Melanocyte A pigment producing cell.

Melanoma A malignant neoplasm derived from cells that form melanin.

Metaplasia The transformation of a differentiated tissue of one kind to a differentiated tissue of another kind.

Metastasis The shifting of a disease from one part of the body to another.

Metastasize The process of invading by metastasis.

Necropsy A term for autopsy.

Necrosis The pathological death of one or more cells resulting from irreversible damage.

Neoplasia The pathological process that results in the growth of a neoplasm.

Neoplasm An abnormal tissue that grows by cellular proliferation to form a distinct mass of tissue that may be benign or malignant.

Neoplastic A tissue that contains a neoplasm.

Neurolemoma A benign, encapsulated neoplastic tissue consisting of Schwann cells.

Oncogenes A family of genes that may foster malignant processes if mutated or activated by retrovirus.

Ossification The formation of bone.

Papilloma A benign epithelial neoplasm.

Pedunculated A stalk-like connecting structure attaching a tumor to normal tissue.

Prevalence The number of cases of disease existing in a given population at a specified time.

Septicemia Disease caused by the spread of microorganisms or their toxins.

Tumor Any swelling, synonymous with neoplasm.

Tumor promotion Stimulating tumor induction following tumor initiation.

Ulcer A lesion on the skin surface or mucous surface caused by superficial tissue loss.

Vacuolate A clear space in a tissue.

13. REFERENCES

Baumann, P.C., W.D. Smith and M. Ribick. 1982. Hepatic tumor rates and polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon levels in two populations of brown bullheads (Ictalurus nebulosus). In Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons: physical and biological chemistry. Ed. M. Cooke, A.J. Dennis and G.L. Fisher. Columbus, Ohio. Battelle Press. pp. 93-102.

Baumann, P.C.,W.D. Smith and W.K. Parland. 1987. Tumor frequencies and contaminant concentrations in brown bullheads from an industrialized river and a recreational lake. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 116:79-86.

Baumann, P.C., M.J. Mac, S.B. Smith and J.C. Harshbarger. 1991. Tumor frequencies in walleye (Stizostedion vitreum) and brown bullhead (Ictalurus nebulosus) and sediment contaminants in tributaries of the Laurentian Great Lakes. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 48:1804-1810.

Black, J.J. 1984. Aquatic animal neoplasia as an indicator for carcinogenic hazards to man. In Hazard assessment of chemicals - current developments. Ed. J. Saxena. Academic Press Inc. New York. pp.181-232.

Black, J.J., E.D. Evans, J.C. Harshbarger and R.F. Zeigel. 1982. Epizootic neoplasms in fishes from a lake polluted by copper mining wastes. J. Natl. Canc. Inst. 69:915-926.

Black, J.J. 1983. Field and laboratory studies of environmental carcinogenesis in Niagara River fish. J. Great Lakes Res. 9:326-334.

Black, J.J. and P.C. Baumann. 1991. Carcinogens and cancers in freshwater fishes. Environ. Health Perspect. 90:27-33.

Bowser, P.R., M.J. Wolfe, J.L. Forney and G.A. Wooster. 1988. Seasonal prevalence of skin tumors from walleye (Stizostedion vitreum) from Oneida Lake, New York. J. Wildl. Dis. 24:292-298.

Budd, J., J.D. Schroder and D.D. Dukes. 1975. Tumors of the yellow perch. In The pathology of fishes. Eds. W.E. Rebelin and G. Migaki. Univ. of Wisconsin Press. Madison, Wisconsin. pp.895-906.

Dawe, C.J., M.F. Stanton and F.J. Schwartz. 1964. Hepatic neoplasms in native bottom-feeding fish of Deep Creek Lake, Maryland. Cancer Res. 24:1194-1201.

Down, N.E., R.E. Peter and J.F. Leatherland. 1988. Gonadotropin content of the pituitary gland of gonadal tumor-bearing common carp x goldfish hybrids from the Great Lakes, as assessed by bioassay and radioimmunoassay. Gen. Comp. Endocrin. 69:288-300.

Fabacher, D.L. and P.C. Baumann. 1985. Enlarged livers and hepatic microsomal mixed-function oxidase components in tumor-bearing bullheads from a chemically contaminated river. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 4:703-710.

Fox, G.A. 1989. Practical causal inference - a lesson in applied epidemiology. Presented 28 March 1989 in Chicago at Workshop on Cause-Effect Linkages. Sponsored by Council of Great Lakes Managers.

Government of Canada. 1991. Toxic chemicals in the Great Lakes and associated effects. Vol. II - Effects. Cat. No. En 37-95/1990-1E. ISBN 0-662-18317-7. pp.499-552.

Harshbarger, J.C. 1965-1988. Registry of tumors in lower animals. Smithsonian Institute. Washington, D.C.

Hayes, M.A., I.R. Smith, T.H. Rushmore, T.L. Crane, C. Thorn, T.E. Kocal and H.W. Ferguson. 1990. Pathogenesis of skin and liver neoplasms in white suckers from industrially polluted areas in Lake Ontario. Science of the Total Environ. 94:105-123.

Hayes, M.A. and C. Portt. 1997. Liver pathology of walleye from the Salmon River, with comparisons to walleye from the Raisin River and Hoople Creek. unpublished.

Kinae, N., M. Yamashita, I. Tomita, I. Kimura, H. Ishida, H. Kumai and G. Nakamura. 1990. A possible correlation between environmental chemicals and pigment cell neoplasia in fish. Sci. Tot. Environ. 94:143-153.

Kirby, G.M., M.J. Stalker, S. Gordon, B.A. Quinn, F.J. van Schooten and M.A. Hayes. 1995. Influences of chronic cholangiohepatitis and cholestasis on hepatic metabolism of benzo[a]pyrene in white suckers (Catostomus commersoni) from industrially polluted areas of Lake Ontariol. Carcinogenesis 16:2923-2929.

MacCubbin, A.E., J.J. Black and B.P. Dunn. 1990. 32P-postlabeling detection of DNA adducts in fish from chemically contaminated waterways. Sci. Tot. Environ. 94:89-104.

MacCubbin, A.E. and N. Ersing. 1991. Tumors in fish from the Detroit River. Hydrobiol. 219:301-306.

Metcalfe, C.D., V.W. Cairns and J.D. Fitzsimons. 1988. Experimental induction of liver tumours in rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) by contaminated sediment from Hamilton Harbour, Ontario. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 45:2161-2167.

Meyers, T.R. and J.D. Hendricks. 1984. Limited epizootic of neuroblastoma of coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) reared in chlorinated-dechlorinated water. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 72:299-310.

Mix, M.C. 1986. Cancerous diseases in aquatic animals and their association with environmental pollutants: a critical review of the literature. Final report for the American Petroleum Institute. Oregon State University. Corvallis, Oregon. 247 pp.

Moccia, R.D. J.F. Leatherland and R.A. Sonstegard. 1977. Increasing frequency of thyroid goiters in coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) in the Great Lakes. Science (Washington, D.C.) 198:425-426.

Myers, M.S., J.T. Landahl, M.M. Krahn, L.L. Johnson and B.B. McCain. 1990. Overview of studies on liver carcinogenesis in English Sole from Puget Sound; evidence for a xenobiotic chemical etiology I: pathology and epizootiology. Sci. Tot Environ. 94:33-50.

Noltie, D.B., J.F. Leatherland and M.H.A. Keenleyside. 1988. Epizootics of thyroid hyperplasia in Lake Superior and Lake Erie pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha (Walbaum)). Can. J. Zool. 66:2676-2687.

Papas, T.S., T.W. Pry, M.P. Schafer and R.A. Sonstegard. 1977. Presence of DNA polymerase in lymphosarcoma in northern pike ( Esox lucius). Cancer Res. 37:3214-3217.

Papas, T.S., J.E. Dahlberg and R.A. Sonstegard. 1976. Type C virus in lymphosarcoma in northern pike (Esox lucius) Nature 261:506-508.

Pott, P. 1963. Printed in Natl. Cancer Inst. Monogr. 10:7-13.

Poulet, F.M., M.J. Wolfe and J.M. Spitsbergen. 1994. Naturally occurring orocutaneous papillomas and carcinomas of brown bullheads (Ictalurus nebulosus) in New York State. Vet. Pathol. 31:8-18.

Premdas, P.D. and C.D. Metcalfe. 1994. Regression, proliferation and development of lip papillomas in wild white suckers, Catostomus commersoni, held in the laboratory. Env. Biol. Fish. 40:263-269.

Premdas, P.D., T.L. Metcalfe, M.E. Bailey and C.D. Metcalfe. 1995. The prevalence and histological appearance of lip papillomas in white suckers (Catostomus commersoni) from two sites in central Ontario, Canada. J. Great Lakes Res. 21:207-218.

Setlow, R.B., A.D. Woodhead and E. Grist. 1989. Animal model for ultraviolet radiation-induced melanoma: Platyfish-swordtail hybrid. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86:8922-8926.

Sinnhuber, R.O. 1967. Aflatoxin in cottonseed meal and liver cancer in rainbow trout. In Trout hepatoma research conference papers. Res. Rep. No. 70. Edited by J.E. Halver and I.A. Mitchell. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife. Washington, D.C. pp. 48-55.

Smith, I.R., H.W. Ferguson and M.A. Hayes. 1989. Histopathology and prevalence of epidermal papillomas epidemic in brown bullhead, Ictalurus nebulosus (Lesueur), and white sucker, Catostomus commersoni (Lacepede), populations from Ontario, Canada. J. Fish Dis. 12:373-388.

Sonstegard, R. 1975. Lymphosarcoma in muskellunge (Esox masquinongy). In The pathology of fishes. Edited by W.E. Ribelin and G. Migaki. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison. pp. 907-924.

Sonstegard, R. 1976a. Studies of the etiology and epizootiology of lymphosarcoma in Esox (Esox lucius L. and Esox masquinongy). Prog. Exp. Tumor Res. 20:141-155.

Sonstegard, R. 1976b. in Sonstegard R.A. 1977. Environmental carcinogenesis studies in fishes of the Great Lakes of North America. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 298:261-269.

Yamagiwa, K. and K. Ichikawa. 1915. in Black, J.J. 1984.

Yamamoto, T., R.K. Kelly and O. Nielsen. 1985. Morphological differentiation of virus-associated skin tumors of walleye (Stizostedion vitreum vitreum). Fish Path. 20:361-372.

Return to the Table of Contents
Previous Section of the Tumor Manual